Introduction to the Goldberg Variations

In "Clavier-Übung IV," Bach published an Aria with 30 Variations. This was a large-scale variation form with a tradition dating back to the 16th century, a genre in which many musicians had previously presented their works to the world, serving as a standard for compositional technique and a means to demonstrate a composer's skill. While the 1740s saw an emphasis on the didactic purpose of such pieces, leading to the composition of many simpler works, Bach's "Goldberg Variations," conversely, are said to have surpassed the performance standards of the time.

Origin of the Title

The title "Goldberg Variations" derives from Johann Gottlieb Goldberg, a harpsichordist in the employ of Count Keyserlingk, a Dresden courtier (the person who presented Bach with the decree appointing him Kapellmeister to the Elector of Saxony). J. N. Forkel, Bach's first biographer, recounts that the Count, suffering from insomnia, commissioned Bach to compose the work. However, given that no dedication was included upon publication and Goldberg was only 14 years old at the time, this account is somewhat questionable. Although no autograph manuscript survives, making it impossible to fully ascertain the circumstances of its composition, it is generally believed that, similar to Bach's other collections, the work was compiled from pieces written over time, refined, and finally arranged and structured as 30 variations.

Structure of the Aria

The Aria is sarabande-like, featuring an impressive graceful melody with rich ornamentation. However, the actual theme for the variations is the bass progression. Across its 32 measures—symbolizing the total number of movements in the "Goldberg Variations," namely the opening Aria, 30 variations, and the concluding repeat of the Aria, totaling 32 pieces—each measure is assigned a single harmony, forming the foundation for the variations with a stable harmonic rhythm.

Organization of the Variations

The 30 variations are organized into small groups of three. Each group consists of:

• The first variation, a character variation written in various styles and forms.
• The second variation, a concise two-part invention.
• The third variation, a canon written in trio sonata texture.

The canons progress sequentially from the unison to the ninth. Furthermore, Variation 16, a French Overture with dotted rhythms, signals the beginning of the second half of the work. Variation 30, notably, is not a canon but a Quodlibet. This is a contrapuntal musical form depicting the simultaneous singing of multiple popular tunes, and despite its humorous character, it demands intricate technique in the inner voices. Bach actually used two fragments of contemporary folk songs here. One of them is known to be a song with the theme of "farewell," used as the final piece at festive dances. In Variation 30, Bach bids farewell to this captivating feast of variations.

Performance and Appreciation

While knowing about the grouping of three variations, the placement of Variation 16 as the midpoint of the 30 variations, the progressively increasing intervals of the canons, and the meaning of the original tunes in the Quodlibet may provide intellectual satisfaction, it is difficult to discern these elements solely by listening to the music. Furthermore, it is doubtful whether Bach intended these 32 movements to be performed continuously; one could argue that, similar to the organizational principles of "The Well-Tempered Clavier" or "The Art of Fugue", the arrangement remains abstract and symbolic. In performance and appreciation, the contrast between individual pieces is arguably more crucial. The effect is immense when, after hearing the minor-key canon of Variation 15 with its sigh-like, heavy theme, Variation 16 resounds brilliantly as a French Overture. After the Quodlibet of Variation 30 vividly develops multiple themes with rich and energetic counterpoint, the initial Aria returns as if nothing had happened. The fact that all 32 pieces are performed continuously in many contemporary concerts—despite their length—is precisely due to the masterful contrast between the pieces and Bach's dramatic flair evident in their arrangement.

Performance Practice and Ornamentation

The "Goldberg Variations" were conceived for a "two-manual harpsichord," with specific manuals indicated for each piece. Even when performed on a modern piano, the effect of manual changes should be considered. Furthermore, this work presents highly complex issues regarding ornamentation. The symbols notated in the first edition are somewhat longer than standard ones, making their meaning unclear. Although Bach made revisions after publication, he did not leave precise instructions for the ambiguously notated ornaments. Even today, active discussions continue, referencing various historical sources as well as C. P. E. Bach's "Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments."

Bach's Later Additions

Incidentally, Bach kept a copy of "Clavier-Übung IV," published no later than 1741, and inscribed approximately 14 new canons titled "Various Canons on the 8 Fundamental Notes of the Preceding Aria" into it. Unfortunately, these cannot be fully performed on the harpsichord and are instead played on the organ or by an ensemble.

For the overall structure, please refer here.